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The
Congress of Berlin (June 13 - July 13, 1878) was a meeting of the European Great Powers' and the Ottoman Empire's leading statesmen in
Berlin in
1878. In the wake of the
Russo-Turkish War, 1877–78, the meeting's aim was to reorganize the countries of the Balkans.
Otto von Bismarck, who led the Congress, undertook to balance the distinct interests of Great Britain,
Russia and
Austria-Hungary. As a consequence, however, differences between Russia and Austria-Hungary intensified, as did the nationality question in the Balkans.
The congress was aimed at the revision of the
Treaty of San Stefano and at keeping Constantinople in Ottoman hands. It effectively disavowed Russia's victory over the decaying Ottoman Empire in the
Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78. The Congress of Berlin redistributed back to the Ottoman Empire certain
Bulgarian territories that the previous treaty had given to the
Principality of Bulgaria, most notably Macedonia (region). .
Congress of Berlin.
Proceedings
The Congress was attended by the British Empire,
Austria-Hungary, French Third Republic, the
German Empire, Italy, the Russian Empire and the
Ottoman Empire. Delegates from
Kingdom of Greece,
Kingdom of Romania,
Serbia, and
Montenegro attended the sessions in which their states were concerned, but were not members of the congress.
The congress was solicited by the rivals of the Russian Empire, particularly by Austria-Hungary and United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and hosted in 1878 by
Otto von Bismarck. The Congress of Berlin proposed and ratified the Treaty of Berlin, 1878.
The meetings were held at Bismarck's chancellory, the former Radziwill Palace, from
June 13,
1878 until
July 13, 1878. The congress revised or eliminated 18 of the 29 articles in the Treaty of San Stefano. Furthermore, using as a foundation the treaties of
Treaty of Paris (1856) and
London (1871), the treaty effected a rearrangement of the Eastern situation.
Main issues
The principal mission of the World Powers at the congress was to deal a fatal blow to the burgeoning movement of
pan-Slavism. The movement caused serious concern in
Berlin and particularly in
Vienna, which was afraid that the repressed Slavic nationalities would revolt against the
Habsburgs. London and
Paris were nervous about the diminishing influence of the Ottoman Empire in the south and about Russian cultural expansion to the south, where both Britain and France were poised to colonize Egypt and
Palestine.
Through the Treaty of San Stefano, the
Russians, led by chancellor Alexander Gorchakov, had managed to create the Bulgarian autonomous principality under
Ottoman Empire's nominal rule, thus sparking British
Great Game in the East. This state had access to the
Aegean Sea and comprised a very large portion of Macedonia (region) that could have at any time threatened the Straits that separate the Black Sea from the Mediterranean.
This arrangement was not acceptable to the British Empire, which considered the entire Mediterranean to be, in effect, a British sphere of influence, and saw any Russian attempt to gain access there as a grave threat to its power. Just a week before the Congress, Prime Minister
Benjamin Disraeli had concluded a
Cyprus Convention against Russia, whereby Britain was allowed to occupy the strategically placed island of
Cyprus. This agreement predetermined Disraeli's position during the Congress and led him to issue threats to unleash a war against Russia if she did not comply with Turkish demands.
Ceding to Russia's pressure, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro were declared independent principalities. The full independence of Bulgaria, however, was denied. It was promised autonomy, and guarantees were made against Turkish interference, but these were largely ignored. The
Dobruja was given to Romania; Montenegro obtained
Niksic,
Podgorica, Bar, Montenegro, and Plav-Gusinje. The Turkish government, or
Porte, agreed to obey the specifications contained in the Organic Law of 1868, and to guarantee the civil rights of non-Muslim subjects.
Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under the administration of Austria-Hungary.
Russia agreed that Bulgaria should be split up into three parts. The southwestern part remained under Turkish rule.
Eastern Rumelia became an autonomous province and the remainder was the new state of Bulgaria. Russia retained southern Bessarabia and Austria received the right to "occupy and administer" Bosnia and Herzegovina, a controversial clause which eventually precipitated the Bosnian crisis of 1908.
.
Bismarck as host
The Congress of Berlin is frequently viewed as the culmination of the "Battle of Chancellors" involving Alexander Gorchakov of Russia and
Otto von Bismarck of Germany. They were able to effectively persuade other
European leaders that a free and independent Bulgaria would greatly improve the security risks posed by a disintegrating Ottoman Empire. According to
Germans historian Erich Eyck, Bismarck supported Russia's persuasion that "Ottoman Empire rule over a Christian community (Bulgaria) was an anachronism which undoubtedly gave rise to
insurrection and bloodshed and should therefore be ended."Erich Eyck,
Bismarck and the German Empire (New York: W.W. Norton, 1964), 245-46. He used the Great Eastern Crisis of 1875 as proof of growing animosity in the region.
Bismarck's ultimate goal during the Congress of Berlin was not to upset Germany's status on the international platform. He did not wish to disrupt the
Three Emperor's League by choosing between Russia and
Austria as an ally.Erich Eyck,
Bismarck and the German Empire (New York: W.W. Norton, 1964), 245-46. In order to maintain peace in Europe, Bismarck sought to convince other European diplomats on dividing up the Balkans so as to foster greater stability. During the process of division, Russia began to feel short-changed even though she eventually gained independence for Bulgaria. One can therefore see the underpinnings of the alliance problems in Europe prior to the
First World War.
One reason why Bismarck was able to mediate the various tensions present at the Congress of Berlin stemmed from his diplomatic persona. He was an ardent
pacifist when international affairs did not pertain to Germany directly. On the other hand, Bismarck seethed with aggression whenever Germany's
national interest was on the line. And at the Congress of Berlin, "Germany could not look for any advantage from the crisis" that had occurred in the Balkans back in 1875.Erich Eyck,
Bismarck and the German Empire (New York: W.W. Norton, 1964), 245-46. As a result, Bismarck claimed
impartiality on behalf of Germany at the Congress. This claim enabled him to preside over the negotiations with a keen eye for foul play.
According to Henry KissingerKissinger, Henry. Diplomacy (book). New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994. ISBN 0671510991, p139-143, the congress saw a shift in Bismarck's
Realpolitik. Until then, as Germany had become too powerful for isolation, his policy was to maintain the Three Emperors League. Now that he could no longer rely on Russia's alliance, he began to form relations with as many potential enemies as possible.
Legacy
Italy was dissatisfied with the results of the Congress, and the situation between
Greece and
Ottoman Empire was left unresolved. The Bosnia and Herzegovina would also prove to be a problem to the Austro-Hungarian Empire in later decades. The League of Three Emperors, established in 1873, was destroyed, as Russia saw lack of German support on the issue of Bulgaria's full independence as a breach of loyalty and alliance. The establishment of a border between Greece and Turkey failed to be accomplished. In
1881, after protracted negotiations, a compromise border was accepted after a naval demonstration of the Powers.
Neither nation was satisfied, however, and tensions continued until the
Porte declared a war on
Greece on April 17th, 1897. Fighting continued until Russia demanded that it be stopped, and an armistice was concluded on May 18, 1897. However more fighting lay ahead in the twentieth century. So, the congress sowed the seeds of further conflicts, including the
Balkan Wars, and the First World War, and later events connected to these conflicts, such as the
Armenian Genocide. Indeed, subsequent events vindicated Bismarck's famous parting words to a Turkish delegate: "
This is your last chance—and if I know you, you will not take it.".
Delegates
Great Britain
Russia
Germany
Austria-Hungary
France
Italy
Ottoman Empire
- Alexander Karatheodori Pasha
- Sadoullah Bey
- Mehemet Ali (soldier)
Romania
Greece
Serbia
Montenegro also sent delegates.
References
The
Congress of Berlin (June 13 - July 13, 1878) was a meeting of the European Great Powers' and the Ottoman Empire's leading statesmen in Berlin in 1878. In the wake of the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–78, the meeting's aim was to reorganize the countries of the
Balkans.
Otto von Bismarck, who led the Congress, undertook to balance the distinct interests of
Great Britain, Russia and
Austria-Hungary. As a consequence, however, differences between Russia and Austria-Hungary intensified, as did the nationality question in the Balkans.
The congress was aimed at the revision of the Treaty of San Stefano and at keeping
Constantinople in Ottoman hands. It effectively disavowed Russia's victory over the decaying Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78. The Congress of Berlin redistributed back to the Ottoman Empire certain
Bulgarian territories that the previous treaty had given to the Principality of Bulgaria, most notably Macedonia (region). .
Congress of Berlin.
Proceedings
The Congress was attended by the
British Empire, Austria-Hungary,
French Third Republic, the German Empire,
Italy, the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire. Delegates from
Kingdom of Greece, Kingdom of Romania,
Serbia, and Montenegro attended the sessions in which their states were concerned, but were not members of the congress.
The congress was solicited by the rivals of the Russian Empire, particularly by Austria-Hungary and United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and hosted in 1878 by
Otto von Bismarck. The Congress of Berlin proposed and ratified the Treaty of Berlin, 1878.
The meetings were held at Bismarck's chancellory, the former
Radziwill Palace, from
June 13,
1878 until July 13,
1878. The congress revised or eliminated 18 of the 29 articles in the
Treaty of San Stefano. Furthermore, using as a foundation the treaties of
Treaty of Paris (1856) and
London (1871), the treaty effected a rearrangement of the Eastern situation.
Main issues
The principal mission of the World Powers at the congress was to deal a fatal blow to the burgeoning movement of pan-Slavism. The movement caused serious concern in
Berlin and particularly in
Vienna, which was afraid that the repressed Slavic nationalities would revolt against the
Habsburgs. London and Paris were nervous about the diminishing influence of the
Ottoman Empire in the south and about Russian cultural expansion to the south, where both Britain and France were poised to colonize Egypt and Palestine.
Through the Treaty of San Stefano, the Russians, led by chancellor
Alexander Gorchakov, had managed to create the
Bulgarian autonomous principality under
Ottoman Empire's nominal rule, thus sparking British
Great Game in the East. This state had access to the Aegean Sea and comprised a very large portion of
Macedonia (region) that could have at any time threatened the Straits that separate the Black Sea from the Mediterranean.
This arrangement was not acceptable to the British Empire, which considered the entire Mediterranean to be, in effect, a British
sphere of influence, and saw any Russian attempt to gain access there as a grave threat to its power. Just a week before the Congress, Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli had concluded a
Cyprus Convention against Russia, whereby Britain was allowed to occupy the strategically placed island of Cyprus. This agreement predetermined Disraeli's position during the Congress and led him to issue threats to unleash a war against Russia if she did not comply with Turkish demands.
Ceding to Russia's pressure, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro were declared independent principalities. The full independence of Bulgaria, however, was denied. It was promised autonomy, and guarantees were made against Turkish interference, but these were largely ignored. The
Dobruja was given to Romania; Montenegro obtained Niksic, Podgorica, Bar, Montenegro, and Plav-Gusinje. The Turkish government, or
Porte, agreed to obey the specifications contained in the Organic Law of 1868, and to guarantee the civil rights of non-Muslim subjects. Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under the administration of Austria-Hungary.
Russia agreed that Bulgaria should be split up into three parts. The southwestern part remained under Turkish rule.
Eastern Rumelia became an autonomous province and the remainder was the new state of Bulgaria. Russia retained southern Bessarabia and Austria received the right to "occupy and administer" Bosnia and Herzegovina, a controversial clause which eventually precipitated the
Bosnian crisis of 1908.
.
Bismarck as host
The Congress of Berlin is frequently viewed as the culmination of the "Battle of Chancellors" involving Alexander Gorchakov of Russia and Otto von Bismarck of Germany. They were able to effectively persuade other
European leaders that a free and independent
Bulgaria would greatly improve the security risks posed by a disintegrating Ottoman Empire. According to Germans historian Erich Eyck, Bismarck supported Russia's persuasion that "
Ottoman Empire rule over a
Christian community (Bulgaria) was an
anachronism which undoubtedly gave rise to
insurrection and bloodshed and should therefore be ended."Erich Eyck,
Bismarck and the German Empire (New York: W.W. Norton, 1964), 245-46. He used the Great Eastern Crisis of 1875 as proof of growing
animosity in the region.
Bismarck's ultimate goal during the Congress of Berlin was not to upset Germany's status on the international platform. He did not wish to disrupt the
Three Emperor's League by choosing between
Russia and Austria as an ally.Erich Eyck,
Bismarck and the German Empire (New York: W.W. Norton, 1964), 245-46. In order to maintain peace in Europe, Bismarck sought to convince other European diplomats on dividing up the
Balkans so as to foster greater stability. During the process of division, Russia began to feel short-changed even though she eventually gained independence for Bulgaria. One can therefore see the underpinnings of the alliance problems in Europe prior to the First World War.
One reason why Bismarck was able to mediate the various tensions present at the Congress of Berlin stemmed from his diplomatic persona. He was an ardent
pacifist when international affairs did not pertain to Germany directly. On the other hand, Bismarck seethed with aggression whenever Germany's national interest was on the line. And at the Congress of Berlin, "Germany could not look for any advantage from the crisis" that had occurred in the Balkans back in 1875.Erich Eyck,
Bismarck and the German Empire (New York: W.W. Norton, 1964), 245-46. As a result, Bismarck claimed impartiality on behalf of Germany at the Congress. This claim enabled him to preside over the negotiations with a keen eye for foul play.
According to
Henry KissingerKissinger, Henry.
Diplomacy (book). New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994. ISBN 0671510991, p139-143, the congress saw a shift in Bismarck's
Realpolitik. Until then, as Germany had become too powerful for isolation, his policy was to maintain the Three Emperors League. Now that he could no longer rely on Russia's alliance, he began to form relations with as many potential enemies as possible.
Legacy
Italy was dissatisfied with the results of the Congress, and the situation between
Greece and
Ottoman Empire was left unresolved. The
Bosnia and Herzegovina would also prove to be a problem to the
Austro-Hungarian Empire in later decades. The League of Three Emperors, established in 1873, was destroyed, as Russia saw lack of German support on the issue of Bulgaria's full independence as a breach of loyalty and alliance. The establishment of a border between Greece and Turkey failed to be accomplished. In
1881, after protracted negotiations, a compromise border was accepted after a naval demonstration of the Powers.
Neither nation was satisfied, however, and tensions continued until the Porte declared a war on Greece on April 17th,
1897. Fighting continued until Russia demanded that it be stopped, and an armistice was concluded on May 18, 1897. However more fighting lay ahead in the twentieth century. So, the congress sowed the seeds of further conflicts, including the Balkan Wars, and the First World War, and later events connected to these conflicts, such as the Armenian Genocide. Indeed, subsequent events vindicated
Bismarck's famous parting words to a Turkish delegate: "
This is your last chance—and if I know you, you will not take it.".
Delegates
Great Britain
Russia
- Alexander Gorchakov
- Peter Shuvalov
- Baron d'Oubril
Germany
- Otto von Bismarck
- Prince Chlodwig zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst
- Bernhard Ernst von Bülow
Austria-Hungary
- Gyula Andrássy
- Count Alajos Károlyi
- Heinrich Karl von Haymerle
France
Italy
- Lodovico, count Corti
- Count De Launay
Ottoman Empire
Romania
Greece
Serbia
Montenegro also sent delegates.
References
Congress of Berlin - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Congress of Berlin (June 13 - July 13, 1878) was a meeting of the European Great Powers' and the Ottoman Empire's leading statesmen in Berlin in 1878.
Berlin, Congress of
Congress of the European powers (Russia, Turkey, Austria-Hungary, the UK, France, Italy, and Germany) held in Berlin in 1878 to determine the boundaries of the Balkan states after ...
Berlin, Congress definition of Berlin, Congress in the Free Online ...
Berlin, Congress of (June 13–July 13, 1878) Diplomatic meeting of the major European powers at which the Treaty of Berlin replaced the Treaty of San Stefano.
Congress of Berlin (1887) definition of Congress of Berlin (1887) in ...
Concert of Europe, term used in the 19th cent. to designate a loose agreement by the major European powers to act together on European questions of common interest.
Congress of Berlin — FactMonster.com
Encyclopedia Berlin, Congress of. Berlin, Congress of, 1878, called by the signers of the Treaty of Paris of 1856 (see Paris, Congress of) to reconsider the terms of the Treaty of ...
XXVI Congress of the ESCRS Berlin 2008
The European Society of Cataract and Refractive Surgeons (ESCRS), a leader in the worldwide ophthalmic community, is a not-for-profit organisation founded to ...
XXVI Congress of the ESCRS Berlin 2008
Venue The Congress and Exhibition of the XXVI Congress of the European Society of Cataract and Refractive Surgeons will be held at the:
Congress of Berlin – FREE Congress of Berlin Information ...
Congress of Berlin – Facts about Congress of Berlin, Pictures, Video and Congress of Berlin Information at Encyclopedia.com: a free, credible collection of encyclopedias.
Congress - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Congress of Berlin (1878), reorganizing conditions in the Balkans, The Congress of Gniezno (1000) The Congress of Panama was an 1826 meeting of representatives from several Latin ...
Berlin, Congress of. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-07
Berlin, Congress of. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-07 ... 1878, called by the signers of the Treaty of Paris of 1856 (see Paris, Congress of) to reconsider the ...
